Lab 1 Observing Microorganisms

The purpose of this lab was to observe the difference between a eukarotic cells and a prokayotic cells . The way we were able to distinguish the difference between the prokaryotic organisms from the eukaryotic organisms was simple eukaryotic cells have a nucleus and have mostky membrane organelles.

The Role of Biomedical Research in Malaria Eradication

Bill and Melinda Gates are trying increase efforts in hopes of eliminating the parasite that causes malaria. Malaria is a disease caused by a parasitic protozoa (Plasmodium) that continues to kill 1 million individuals per year worldwide. Many attempts have been made to completely eradicate malaria before, however the parasite has managed to persist. Anthony Fauci, the director of National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases talked about what needed to be done in order for to succeed in this effort.

What has been learned from the past is that as Plasmodium is eliminated due to human intervention, the parasite or the mosquito that delivers it into our bloodstream are bound to change in order to circumvent the roadblocks that we have set. Currently scientists are working on a way to intefere with the parasite by preventing the mosquito from acting as its vector (method of delivery). However, in order to win the battle against Plasmodium, we have to be able to predict what changes can occur and work to fight against those as well. We need the modifications to the mosquito to be able to spread to nearly the entire mosquito population and continue through generations. In addition to this, we need to develop ways of diagnosing infection before symptoms arise as well as vaccines that can interfere with the progression of infection at its different stages. More information needs to be learned about the parasite itself and its life cycle for their efforts to be successful.

http://www3.niaid.nih.gov/news/newsreleases/2009/MalariaEradication.htm

Of Mice and Peanuts

Earlier this year, a group of researchers in Chicago made a break through in the research and experimentation of creating an animal model that recreates the symptoms of human type 1 hypersensitivity, and analphylaxis. The teams goals are to help prevent and plan strategies that aid people in overcoming their allergic response to food allergies. roughly 4% of the U.S population currently has some sort of food allergy and for many this is a serious and life threatening ordeal. The teams model consisted of using a "mixture of peanut extract and a toxin from staphylococcus aureus called staphylococcal enterotoxin B". The mixture helped the team study the closest thing to a human reaction in mice. One thing that the team observed was the the test group of mice had a higher level of eosinophils and indicated that they had more cells that would stimulate an inflammation and cause many of the symptoms associated with the allergic response, i.e. swelling, redness, dilation of blood vessels, muscle contraction, and decrease in blood pressure, all of which can exacerbate the functions of breathing and take local anaphylaxis to the acute anaphylaxis causing death. Dr. Bryce's team is on the leading edge of research to help save countless lives and unnecessary suffering.

Co-Administration of H1N1 Influenza and seasonal Influenza Vaccine

There are still debates weither the H1N1 Influenza and seasonal Influenza Vaccine should be considered into one injectable version, since both vaccines have been well tolerated containing inactivated influenza viruses. Studies have shown that co-administration of the two vaccines does not impair or interact with the immune response to either one. According to an article from the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), there was a clinical trial on approximately 400 healthy volunteered people aged 18 to 64 years and 400 healthy volunteered people 65 years of age and older who received 2009 H1N1 influenza vaccine at the same time as seasonal influenza vaccine. As a result, among 25 volunteers aged 18 through 64 years, 76 percent showed a robust immune response to the 2009 H1N1 influenza vaccine. Also, among 25 volunteers aged 65 years or older, 80 percent developed a robust immune response to the 2009 H1N1 influenza vaccine. Overall, combining the vaccine wouldn’t be a bad idea for healthy adults, but we still have to take in consideration that the trial only tested healthy adults. The majority of people now in days usually have at least one health problem. What about for children? Would combining this vaccine be too much for a child’s immune sys. to handle, or can it cause an impair immune response in children? It wouldn’t be a bad idea to first over look any outcome before combining the vaccine.

http://www3.niaid.nih.gov/news/newsreleases/2009/H1N1plusSeasonalVax.htm

NIAID MEDIA AVAILABILITY : Scientists Identify New Role for Lung Epithelial Cells in Sensing Allergens in the Air

Many antigens that foreign substances can cause an immune response are inhaled every day. Lungs have mechanisms that inhibit offensive immune responses to these antigens. However, this immune response can often be made allergic responses or asthma. Researchers have identified a new role for certain lung cells in the immune response to airborne allergens. Researchers found out Toll-like receptors (TSRs). TLRs are special sensors which dot the surface of epithelial cells that line the lungs. TLRs can catch the presence of antigens and produce activated signals of immune cells. The scientists have not identified whether TLRs were on immune cells or on non-immune cells. However, the researchers discovered that TLRs are on airway epithelial cells, and helped induce the initial immune response to antigens in the lungs. TLRs are not on immune cells. TLRs have an important function in the airway epithelial cells that decrease the development allergic disease. The new TLRs on non-immune cells in the lungs can contribute to the immune response to airborne antigens and can use treatments for allergic diseases.


http://www3.niaid.nih.gov/news/newsreleases/2009/allergens_TLR4.htm.htm

Scientists Discover Key Factor in Controlling the Breakdown of Bone

Scientists have discovered a link between the chemoattractant sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) and bone density. Osteoclasts are cells that resorb bone cells and S1P is thought to have chemotaxic influence on immature osteoclast migration from the lymph node to the bone. In osteoporosis, osteoclast activity outpaces bone building by osteoblast cells. Because osteoclasts develop from the same stem cells as white blood cells already known to be responsive to S1P, Dr. Ishii, a rheumatologist of Osaka University suspected that S1P may also have the same cytokinetic affect on osteoclasts. Bones in mice with functioning S1P receptors was denser than those mice without. Postmenopausal mice given FTY720, a synthetic S1P activator, also had denser bones than the control group. This study may give rise to new approaches to combat osteoporosis and rheumatoid arthritis since current methods mostly target mature osteoclast cells. This approach is a novel combination of immunology and orthopedic medicine.

http://www3.niaid.nih.gov/news/newsreleases/2009/bone_S1P.htm

New Strategy Proposed for Designing Antibody-Based HIV Vaccine

Director of the Vaccine Research Center at the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease of the National Institutes of Health, John R. Mascola, M.D., and his colleagues proposed new studies about antibodies producing vaccine against HIV. These studies show that people with HIV produce antibodies but, it does not protect them from the virus because these anti-HIV antibodies develop years after being infected with HIV. If a vaccine is given to a person before exposure to HIV, he or she can naturally produce anti-HIV antibodies that may prevent HIV. Dr. Mascola and colleagues recommended a research strategy to come up with a new vaccine that will produce an anti-HIV antibodies. They mentioned that we have to obtain many types of neutralizing anti-HIV antibodies and identify the part of the virus that will be susceptible to these antibodies. Scientist needs to understand the properties of neutralizing anti-HIV and non-neutralizing antibodies, such us how they evolve and the amount of antibodies required in a HIV vaccine to fight the viruses. They also need to be aware of what immune system condition will support the production of broadly neutralizing anti-HIV antibodies.

http://www3.niaid.nih.gov/news/newsreleases/2009/antibody_hiv_vax.htm

Flu (Influenza) Can One Vaccine Protect Against All Strains?

If researchers could develop a long-lasting and very protective vaccine, we would not have to worry about getting a flu shot every year.
Vaccine against flu helps to activate our immune system by inserting proteins that found on the coat of the flu virus. But, unfortunately, flu virus doesn’t have the same coat every year; it changes each season. And, when the coat changes, it can no longer recognize the proteins that were taken from the coat of previous virus. That’s why we need to reestablish our immunity to the flu by getting new shot every year.
Scientists are working on finding proteins from the virus that are more permanent and don’t change so fast. This would help to develop vaccines that last longer. Some scientists already found stable proteins. Dr. Gerard found M2, and Dr. Van found NP. They are trying to make more of the version of such proteins by bioengineering. Also, they’re examining for how long the immunity provided by these vaccine would last, and what is the possibility for these proteins to mutate.

http://www3.niaid.nih.gov/topics/Flu/Research/vaccineResearch/oneVaccine.htm

Key Facts About Seasonal Flu Vaccine

There are two types of vaccines: First type is the "flu shot" an inactivated vaccine, which is given to people older than 6 months. Second type is the "nasal spray flu vaccine" (sometimes called "LAIV" - live attenuated influenza vaccine) that is made with live, weakened flu viruses, which is approved for use in healthy people, 2-49 years of age and who are not pregnant. The seasonal flu vaccine will not provide protection against 2009 H1N1 flu. The single best way to protect against flu is to get vaccinated each year with a 2009 H1N1 flu vaccine. Anyone who want to to reduce their chances of getting seasonal flu, they should get vaccinated. Although, there are some people who should not get a flu vaccine (e.g. people who have severe allergy to chicken eggs, who have had a severe reaction to an influenza vaccination, who develop Guillain Barre syndrome, children who are less than 6 months of age and people who have moderate-to-severe illness with fever). The effectiveness of a vaccine depends on the age and health status of a person. However, you may expect vaccine side effects that can be associated with the flu shot and LAIV. Some minor side effects that could occur from the flu shot are: fever, aches and soreness, redness or swelling where the shot was given. The side effects from LAIV are: runny nose, headache, soar throat and cough. In children, additional side effects can include: wheezing, vomiting, muscle aches and fever.



http://www3.niaid.nih.gov/topics/Flu/understandingFlu/seasonalVaccine.htm#

Dynasty: Influenza Virus in 1918 and Today

This article is about the influenza virus of 1918 and today. It bascially states that this virus has been around since then but has just mutated into other forms of the virus. The influenza virus of today is a descendent of the 1918 influenza virus. This article talks about the structure of the virus, it has eight genes, two of which code for the surface proteins. There also 16 H subtypes and 9 N subtypes which therefore allows the virus to make 144 different strains of this virus, but only 3 that they know of have been transmitted to humans. It also talks about how the virus is transferred from animal to human. They still dont have all the answers to how it transfers to humans, they are working on that. All we can do is stay cautious about our surroundings, dont touch our face after contact with someone sick, covering mouths when we cough, and last but not least wash your hands as often as you can.

http://www.niaid.nih.gov

H1N1 and Asthma

There has been quite a bit of hype surrounding the seriousness of H1N1 and underlying illnesses, with asthma amongst the most dangerous. People with asthma are at a much greater risk of developing serious secondary medical complications, such as pneumonia or even death, as a result of H1N1. There are several simple ways an asthmatic, or anyone for that matter, can stay healthy and prevent H1N1. By far, the best preventative measure is to get the H1N1 and seasonal flu vaccinations. These vaccines help your body build an immune response that will be able to better fight against the viral illness. Hand washing, or using an alcohol based hand sanitizer is also a good way to prevent illness from spreading. These hand washing habits are especially important when you are preparing to eat or have been out in a public place because your eyes, nose and mouth are one of the easiest pathways for infection to get into the body. If an asthmatic person does become ill with H1N1, or a seasonal flu, it is important to get in contact with their physician as soon as possible to discuss an appropriate treatment plan. A good way to minimize the risk of serious complications is to act in a timely manner, and possibly starting an antiviral medication to stop the growth of more viruses in the body. Staying home and resting is also a good idea because your body needs to save energy to fight the illness and recover; furthermore, you are helping to prevent the spread of viral illness to others.

http://www.cdc.gov/h1n1flu/asthma/

http://www.cdc.gov/H1N1flu/asthma.htm

http://www.cdc.gov/Features/AsthmaH1N1/

Obesity considered an underlying medical condition placing people at higher risk of H1N1-related complications?

Obesity has been known to create high risk factors in serious illnesses, but it is considered an underling medical condition when it comes to the risk factors in the H1N1 influenza. A total of 268 patients in hospitals with the H1N1 flu, during the early breakout, had their BMI's tested and calculated. About 15% of these patients were obese and 8% were considered morbid obese. There hasn't been much research done with how obesity can affect H1N1, but there are many other risk factors that put obese people under high risk factors when it comes down to the H1N1 flu. **This information came from the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases.

Novel H1N1 Flu: Background on the Situation

The World Health Organization signaled a global pandemic on June 11, 2009 due to the rapid spread of the new H1N1 virus. On that day 70 countries have reported cases of novel influenza A and it continues to spread. The H1N1 virus is of swine origin that first started in Mexico. The virus spreads through the respiratory system of humans that are infected. It causes flu-like symptoms that include nausea, chills, and a fever. The first H1N1 patient in the U.S. was tested in a lab at CDC on April 15, 2009. By June 19, 2009 all 50 states reported cases of H1N1 infection. It seems that overall influenza activity is decreasing but H1N1 is still spreading with fervor. The CDC is overseeing the situation and trying to stop the severity of the outbreak.

http://www3.niaid.nih.gov/topics/Flu/H1N1/background.htm

Flu: Community Immunity (also known as “Herd Immunity”)

If many people in the community are immunized against certain disease, there's less chance of getting the particular disease even for those who aren't immunized. For example, let's say there's three different communities with same number of people who are sick and contagious. However, there are different number of people who are immunized and healthy. In the first community, rests of people are healthy, but not immunized. In the second community, few are immunized people but most are not immunized. In the third community, most people are immunized. Despite the fact that same number of people are sick and contagious in all three communities, spread of influenza is contained only in the third community. Influenza outbreak occured most vigorously in the first community, where no one was immunized. Third community was able to contain the disease because even those who didn’t get immunized were protected against the flu because they were protected by the community’s strong immunity as a whole. In the third community, there was little opportunity for those who weren’t immunized to be exposed to the disease outbreak because of this community immunity. Community immunity is also known as the “Herd Immunity”.

http://www3.niaid.nih.gov/topics/Flu/understandingFlu/communityImmunity.htm

Asthma in Inner-City Children

The National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases has recently renewed a contract to study asthma in inner-city children. This study is being done by the Inner-City Asthma Consortium. Their goal is to examine new possible treatments for asthma as well as why there is an increased incidence in children and adolescents that live within inner-city limits. There are an estimated 20 million Americans that have asthma but children are more affected than adults. Investigators will conduct trials which will evaluate the effectiveness of certain asthma therapies. These studies will be done with an emphasis on trying to discover which agents worsen asthma. Starting in 2005, 500 children are monitored until they are 7 years old to see if they develop asthma or asthma that worsens over time. The incidence and severity of asthma increased with certain triggers like cockroaches, rodents, and second-hand smoke. Reducing exposure to these agents reduced the risk of developing asthma. Treatment includes taking proper medication, giving patient education on the disease, and participating in regular check-ups. Asthma can be controlled following these guidelines plus reducing exposure to environmental factors.

Prevention is the best medicine - How to prevent the flu?

With regards to the flu, the best way to prevent the spread of the flu is through vaccination. However, there are also additional steps one should take to protect their health and the health of their loved ones. One of the most effective ways to achieve this is by avoiding close contact with people who are ill or show flu-like symptoms, and this also applies to all sick individuals to keep themselves isolated to prevent the spread of the disease. In addition, one must remember to cover their their mouth and nose when coughing, doing so help prevent the flue virus from spreading. One must also keep their hands from their face as much as possible, since one of the common modes of transmission of the flu is through contact with flu contaminated hands. Some individuals might wonder whether or not homeopathic remedies should be used to help prevent the flu, however, it must be pointed out that there is no scientific evidence or studies that promote herbal or homeopathic remedies as being beneficial in protecting against the flu. Interestingly enough, studies have shown that the flu virus could survive on surfaces for 2 to 8 hours, thus, it is best to get in the habit of washing your hands often to lower the chance of contracting the flu virus. If done correctly, rubbing the hands with alcohol containing gels and wipes until dry is an effective method in destroying the flu virus that remains viable on surfaces. In addition, chemicals that contain chlorine, detergents, and other antiseptics work well in destroying the virus effectively.

http://www3.niaid.nih.gov/topics/Flu/understandingFlu/Prevention.htm

How Flu Spreads

Person to person is the main way that influenza viruses can spread. Usually it spreads by respiratory droplets of coughs and sneezes. This can happen when droplets from cough or sneeze of an infected person are propelled through the air and deposited on the mouth or nose of people nearby. Influenza viruses may also be spread when person touches respiratory droplets on another person or an object and then touches their own mouth or nose, or even someone else's mouth or nose before washing their hands. Also flu is catching. Most healthy adults may be able to infect others beginning 1 day before symptoms develop and up to 5-7 days after getting sick. Symptoms start 1 to 4 days after the virus enters the body. That means that you can pass on the flu to someone else before you know you are sick, as well as while you are sick. Some persons can be infected with the flu virus but have no symptoms. During this time, those persons may still spread the virus to others. In addition, linens, eating tools, and dishes belonging to those who are sick should not be shared without washing thoroughly first and individuals should avoid any laundry before washing it to prevent contaminating themselves. And it is very important that eating tools are washed either in dishwasher or by hand with water and soap.

http://www3.niaid.nih.gov/topics/flu/understandingflu/howfluspread.htm

The peculiar structure of Influenza reminds me of midieval weaponry

Have you ever seen a 1 Ball Triple Strike Mace? It is a weapon that was used in ancient times to symbolize power. When I think of influenza, this is what I picture. Much like the mace that holds a steel ball with spikes, the influenza structure is strikingly similar in that aspect.

This spherically-shaped enveloped virus is stealthy in nature as it searches for a place to adhere 80% of it’s spikes. These glycoprotein spikes are called hemagglutinin and allow the capability to
bind and begin clumping red blood cells. The Protein Data Bank claims that this ability is the reason why this virus is effective in harming its host. The other 20% of influenza spikes are called neuraminidase. These neuraminidase glycoprotein’s allow cleavage from host glycoprotein’s so that the virus can be released from the cell.

Again, I go back to my medieval weaponry. Both are similar in structure but are also similar in their nature to cause great bodily harm. The Center for Disease Control is unable to capture an exact number of influenza related deaths for a variety of reasons. However, there is evidence that suggests it is quite fatal to many as it can be the smoking gun to another illness, that when
combined, can be powerful and deadly. See the resemblance?

http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/cells/viruses/influenzavirus.html
http://www.cdc.gov/flu/about/disease/symptoms.htm
http://www.historicalweapons.com/otherweapons.html
http://www.pdb.org/pdb/static.dop=education_discussion/molecule_of_the_month/pdb76_1.html

Antibiotic Resistance

I believe this new study which will look at drug resistant bacteria is very important
and greatly needed.
The rate of MRSA is rapidly increasing in this population with fewer
antibiotics being effective to treat patients. We now have a large rate of so-called superbugs.
Some Bacteria have mutated and become resistant to antibiotics such as pencillin.
Science then made a methecillin which the bacteria are also resistant to.
Some resistant bacteria are Staphlococcus aureus or Klebsiella pneumoniae and E-coli.
Before Physicians actually knew the long term effects of antibiotics, they were prescribed more often than they are now. Now these bacteria have mutated and developed a resistance to
some antibiotics.

HIV awareness day - May 18, 2009

This artical was short and to the point. On May 18th, every year and all around the world the red ribbon is worn by communities who come together in rememberance of those who have fallen victim to HIV. May 18th is HIV awareness day and a reminder of how serious and deadly this disease can be. Because of the continual rise and increased rate of HIV infected people, a committed effort is being made to create a safe vaccine. Until then we must continue to educate ourselves and others on the prevention of this disease. This information came from The National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases.

Updated Results: In Youngest Children, a Second Dose of

H1N1 vaccines have been tested in children volunteers to determine if an additional dose would be beneficial to its recipients. Preliminary results released in september were based on the volunteers recieving a single 15-microgram dose of the vaccine. Children 10 years and older had great results in regarding the immune response. The vaccine was tested again and the volunteer children were given an additional 15-microgram dose (recieved (2) 15-microgram doses). There was no increase in the immune response 10 days out with the 10 year olds and older but children 9 years old and younger showed significant increase in their immune response making it clear that a second dose is beneficial in preventing infection.

People at High Risk of Developing Flu-Related Complications

According to the CDC people who usually get the flu will have mild illness and will recover within two weeks. However some people can develop flu complications such as pneumonia, sinus and ear infections which will need medical care and can possibly result in death. There are a group of people who have chronic health problems who may be at high risk for developing flu related complications. Chronic health problems include asthma, neurological and neuro-developmental conditions, chronic lung disease, heart disease, blood disorders, endocrine disorders, kidney disorders, liver disorders, metabolic disorders, and immune-compromised individuals. Also, people who are at high risk for developing flu related complications can include children younger than 5, adults 65 and older and pregnant women. That is why it is important for individuals, especially those who are at high risk for developing flu related complications to take every precaution in preventing the flu.

Link: http://www.cdc.gov/h1n1flu/highrisk.htm

NIAID Launches 2009 H1N1 Influenza Vaccine Trial in Pregnant Women

The first trial testing the 2009 H1N1 influenza vaccine in pregnant women is being started. Pregnant women are at a higher risk for becoming infected with the influenza virus. When the H1N1 outbreak first occurred, hospitalized pregnant women infected with the H1N1 influenza virus accounted for more that four times more than the general public. The trial testing the 2009 H1N1 influenza vaccine will consist of approximately 120 pregnant women ages 18 to 39 who are in their second or third trimester (14-34 weeks) of pregnancy. The women will be receiving 15 or 30 micrograms of the H1N1 vaccine in a two injection series, the second injection will be administered 21 days after the initial injection. Data will be collected throughout the trial process, including blood samples that will demonstrate how the immune system is responding to the vaccine. "Cord blood will also be collected to measure maternal antibodies transferred to the infants through the placenta." It would make sense that U.S. public health officials deemed pregnant women a top priority for receiving the 2009 H1N1 influenza vaccine.

http://www3.niaid.nih.gov/news/newsreleases/2009/H1N1pregnanttrials.htm

generation time for H1N1

Generation time is the amount of time required for a cell to divide into two cells. Studies have shown that the H1N1 virus has a generation time around 2 to 3 days for both acute respiratory illness (ARI) and for influenza like illness(ILI). This means that if there was 100 infections across California today, in two days there would be roughly 200 infections and by a week over 400 infections.

http://www3.niaid.nih.gov/NIAID/Templates/General/LeftNavOnly.aspx?NRMODE=Published&NRNODEGUID={C2E2A444-6F6C-4946-959D-3E75904C10AE}&NRORIGINALURL=%2ftopics%2fFlu%2fH1N1%2ffactsFigures.htm&NRCACHEHINT=Guest#5

Novel H1N1 U.S. Deaths, By Age Group

We can see from the graph that H1N1 is not your tipical flu. Seasonal flu kills older people age of 65++ but the swine flu kills young to mid adults. (25-49). It makes sense that seasonal flu would put older people at higher risk for death becuase their immune system is not as strong as younger people but it doesnt seem to make a whole lot of sense that swine flu would kill mid adults. Maybe These adults have some kind of weak spot or their immune system is not as strong at this age that why they have much higher death rate if they get n1h1 virus.

http://www3.niaid.nih.gov/NIAID/Templates/General/LeftNavOnly.aspx?NRMODE=Published&NRNODEGUID={C2E2A444-6F6C-4946-959D-3E75904C10AE}&NRORIGINALURL=/topics/Flu/H1N1/factsFigures.htm&NRCACHEHINT=Guest#graphc

Novel H1N1 U.S. Deaths, By Age Group

The Flu Types—Seasonal, Pandemic, Avian (Bird), Swine

Flu is respiratory infection caused by viruses and it is differ from common cold. There are three types of flu: seasonal flu, pandemic, and avian (bird), swine flu. Seasonal Flu occurs yearly in the late fall and winter. It affects between 5 to 20 percent of population each flu season. Pandemic Flu is spread easily form person to person. It is virulent strains that create world-wide epidemic. Avian (bird) flu virus occurs in wild birds and is rarely spread to humans. However, viruses can jump over spices barriers and spread disease to domesticated birds and then pigs. From there viruses can be passed to humans. In 1997, scientists discovered that influenza skipped pigs step and affected humans directly from birds. It caused number of deaths is Asia. If this type of flu could be transmitted between humans, a new epidemic (pandemic) will occur.

http:///topics/Flu/understandingFlu/definitionsOverview.htmwww3.niaid.nih.gov

Progress made on Group B Streptococcus Vaccine

Group B Streptococcus (GBS) has been found in one-third of pregnant women in the U.S. GBS can be passed from mother to child during gestation, birth, or even after delivery. Currently, effective antibiotics (penicillin or a penicillin type) are given during labor to prevent the newborn from acquiring GBS during birth. However, since many women are allergic to these antibiotics or in some cases deliver the baby before the antibiotics can be administered, researchers have developed a vaccine for the GBS bacterium. This vaccine was safe and had a modest effect on the most common type of Group B Streptococcus bacteria (type III), but still needs to be developed to work against a broader range of GBS types.

http://www3.niaid.nih.gov/news/newsreleases/2009/strepvax.htm

Genes Key to Staph Disease Severity, Drug Resistance Found Hitchhiking Together

Staphylococcus bacteria have been found to contain and transfer genes that determine the virulence of the bacteria with regards to the disease it causes. These bacteria are also capable of becoming drug resistant via horizontal gene transfer of the resistance genes. It was thought that these processes of exchanging virulence genes and resistance genes occurred separately, but in recent research using strains of Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermis, it was discovered that these two genes are often bundled together and transferred to other bacteria as a package. The two bacteria used in the study, both of which commonly infect and reside on skin, have become progressively more virulent and resistant, making them good candidates for this research. Resistance genes and virulence genes each are associated with specific toxins and what specifically linked the two genes together was a new toxin found in the bundles of these genes called PSM-mec. Linking these genes together with the toxin provides a new pathway for further research in preventing, controlling or treating staph infections and especially drug resistant strains such as MRSA.

http://www3.niaid.nih.gov/news/newsreleases/2009/staphgenes.htm

Antigenic Drift and Shift

Influenza virus is one of the most changeable of viruses. These changes maybe small or large and are abrupt.
Small changes happen in type A and B influenza as the virus makes copies of itself. This process is known as antignic drift. The drifting is frequent enough to make strains of virus the human immune system cant recognize. That is the reason new flu vaccines have to be produced each year to combat that years new strain. Type A influenza also undergoes sudden changes, know as antigenic shift. This shift occurs when two different flu strains infect the same cell and exchange genetic mateial. The assorment of HA or NA proteins in a shifted virus creates a new influenza A subtype. Because people have no immune to new subtype, their appearance tends to coincide with severe flu epidemic or pandemic.

H1N1 Treatment (Antiviral Drugs)

H1N1 is described as "swine flu" and is a new influenza virus. The illness is treated by antivirals. During the 2009-2010 flu season antivirals are going to be used to treat as well as prevent (chemoprophylaxis) of influenza. These prescription drugs decrease the ability of flu viruses to reproduce, which can make the body recover faster and help to prevent serious complications. Antivirals are being prescribed to those with serious conditions including those being hospitalized and those who are more likely to suffer from influenza related-complications. Clinicians are told to prescribe antivirals only to those with the greatest risk. This will limit antiviral resistance, which is a growing worry. Those with confirmed illness, children younger than 2 years, adults older than 65, pregnant women, and those with chronic medical or immunosuppressive conditions will be given precedence to the drugs. However, most individuals with the illness will recover without the use of drugs. Pre-exposure is recommended for health care and public health workers and those working under H1N1 outbreak conditions. Those found to have influenza are give the antivirals oseltamivir (Tamiflu) or zanamivir (Relenza). Treament is most effective if given within 48 hours of onset, yet improvement has been seen in cases when the treatment starts later than 48 hours. The duration is usually 5 days, but can be longer. http://www.cdc.gov/h1n1flu/antiviral.htm

Scientists Learn Why Even Treated Genital Herpes Sores Boost the Risk of HIV Infection

http://www3.niaid.nih.gov/news/newsreleases/2009/herpesHIV.htm


With herpes simplex virus-2 (HSV-2) being the most common sexually transmitted disease in the world the chance of getting HIV is increased by 2 to 3 times when an individual already has HSV-2. Why? A study was conducted to find out why having HSV-2 increased the chance of contracting HIV. Biopsies where taken from genital area of non HSV-2 individuals, and well as that of individuals with HSV-2. The test was conducted in different phases making sure to capture HSV-2 prior, during and post outbreak. The study concluded even though the people with HSV-2 had been given acyclovir (herpes medication) there weren’t a significant differences of those infected vs. unaffected who had taken the medication. The HSV-2 biopsies showed an increased risk of contracting HIV when the virus was introduced by 2-37 % increased risk than that of unaffected genital skin. More importantly finding the immune cell environment of HSV-2 biopsies where to a large extent more conductive to HIV infection. Dr. Corey stated “We hypothesized that sores and breaks in the skin from HSV-2 are associated with a long-lasting immune response at those locations, and that the response consists of an influx of cells that are a perfect storm for HIV infection,” which is alarming but a step in the right direction in understanding HIV and how it effects immune response. Developing a vaccine for HSV would possibly benefit in a decrease the risk of people contracting HIV.