An Overview of the steps in Phagocytosis

I liked this video a lot, because, it shows in details how phagocytosis works. It is fairly short, but shows exactly what we need to know, and exaclty what we learned in class. Except, they didn't show the last step in phagocytosis, which is Elimination. They stopped at digestion of fusion of phagosome. However, overall, I think that it is a great video of phagocytosis.

http://www.blink.biz/immunoanimations/index1.html

Directions on how to open this video:
Top left hand corner of the green box, click on "open"; then, poing to "Innate Immunity", and then click on "Phagocytosis". This should take you to the video.

Monoclonal Antibody Production

As we study in Unit 4 Ch 17, about Monoclonal Antibody and how it's prepare only one type of antibody, derived from a single cloned B cell. The first step is to inject an animal with a antigen of specific epitope of interest. Then the B cell isolated from the spleen and then mixed with myeloma cell. Those two type of cells are fuse together to form hybridomas cells. Then the hybridomas cells put on petri dish culture under condition which permit only to growth the hybridomas cells. You will produce a single type of antibody against a single epitope, then you will separate the single hybridomas cells into individual wells of a microtiter plate to test for ability to produce preferred the antibody. Then produce monoclonal antibody and finally are isolate and purified.


http://www.1lecture.com/Immunology/Monoclonal%20Antibodies/index.html

Macrophages, B-cells, pathogens, Antibody Immune Response

This animation talks about the body’s Humoral immunity and Cell mediated immunity. It shows how the pathogens will only react to the B cells that have the specific receptors for it. B cells are lymphocytes that are derived from the bone marrow and they are readily available to help fight off infection. The Antigen Presenting Cell (APC) of the macrophage react with the receptors of the Helper T cells which then activates the Helper T cells and then work with activated B cells. The helper T cells activate B cells which triggers B cells to rapidly reproduce more B cells which become either plasma cells or memory B cells which will be ready to respond again if exposed to the same pathogen. Plasma cells produce antibodies which docks onto pathogens to mark for destruction.

Constructing Vaccination

As we’ve learned in our microbiology class, a vaccination is the most effective method of controlling infectious diseases. Vaccination prevents people from serious and even fatal diseases such as diphtheria, Hepatitis A and B, measles, chickenpox, and many others.
This short animation I chose to watch briefly explains the types of vaccines and their functions.
There are different ways to produce the vaccines, but usually vaccine consists of weakened or killed pathogens that stimulate immune response.
The first type of vaccines is attenuated vaccines – contain live but weakened microbes. Trough the process called attenuation, the pathogen loses its virulence but still has enough antigens to elicit the immune system.
The second type is inactivated vaccines and one of them is subunit vaccines. Subunit vaccines contain fragments of antigens instead of whole microorganism.
Recombinant vaccines are produced by cloning the gene of desired antigen.
In this animation wasn’t discussed one more type of vaccines which is toxoid vaccines. Toxoid vaccines are modified toxins (treated with heat or chemicals), that are used in vaccines to stimulate the body to produce protective immunity. Examples of toxoid vaccines are diphtheria and tetanus vaccines.
I realy apriciate that I had a chance to learn about role and importance of vaccination. These days people have different concerns about safty of vaccination so the information I've learnd realy helps me to be confident about its usage. http://www.1lecture.com/Immunology/Vaccine/index.html

T-helper cell lymphocyte

I like this animation because it shows very clear how T-helper cells which are lymphocytes aid in immune respose. When a B-lymphocyte and T-helper cell recognize the same antigen, they produce factors that assist in clonal expansion. After that, the T-helper cell releases factors that attract additional B-lymphocytes and phagocytic cells. This animations relates to Chapter 16 of the textbook were we learned in class about the T lymphocytes and the immune response.

Specific immunity, T cells

There are two types of T cells which involved in the specific immunity. One type is cytotoxic T cell or killer T cell. In this case when pathogen enter the cell, and that cell moves the protein to its surface, a patrolling T cell recognizes and binds to this protein and release profferrin, a protein which raptures a membrane of the infected cell. T cell can destroy a cancer cell.The second type of T cell is helper T cell. The role of helper T cell is to activate B cell. The B cell that responses has the same antigen that activates the helper T cells. The T cell sends out chemical signals that effect various immune cells. These chemicals stimulate B cells to divide and produce a clone of antibody releasing cells.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tqjhMHG7J08&feature=related

Disruption of apoptosis in tumorogenesis

Apoptosis also known as cell suicide or “ programmed cell death” is a mechanism of the multicellular organisms that maintain the homeostasis of the lymphocytes (immune cells) and eliminates damaged or anneeded cells. We have learned in our Bio440 class that human body makes 100 million lymphocytes each day and that this process is absolutely necessary for the control of the number of immune cells. In this critical feature of clonal delution and self tolerance surviving lymphocyte will only respond to foreign antigens and not to autoantigens.

However, this short video clip shows that apoptosis is involved in development of many cancers. The key mediator of disruption of that mechanism and mutations of the cells is the P53 tumor suppressor gene that causes excessive cell growth and tumorogenesis. These cell mutations disrupt the natural suicide response and can cause cancer cells to develop resistance to both radiotherapy and chemotherapy.

http://www.researchapoptosis.com/apoptosis/multimedia/videos/video2/index.m

Cell Mediated And Humoral Immunity

In this animation it is shown how white blood cells called macrophages lead the body's cell mediated response by coming into contact and digesting born invaders and also how macrophages build antigens on its surface. It describes what happens when another white blood cell called a helper T - cell encounters the macrophage. If the helper T- cell has a matching receptor to the macrophage then it will bind to the macrophage's surface. It also go into how the helper T- cells multiply and secrete chemicals to help with the response against the invaders. This animation also explains a little about humoral immunity as well and how in humoral immunity B - cells produce the antibodies. It goes into how the B - cells reproduce and what kind of cells they produce into. In general this animation decribes how these two types of immunity respond and what is involved in both responses. This relates to biol 440 because we have discussed both types of immunity as well as T- cells and B- cells.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1tBOmG0QMbA&feature=player_embedded

The Human Immune System: Vaccination

I really liked this animation, becuase it is very simple and very easy to understand what is going on. It shows antigents as dead pathogens that are injected into the human body. Then the lymphocytes detect the antigen and multiply, and then produce antibodies and memory cells. Then the antobodies gradually disappear but the memory cells stay for many years. When alive pathogens of the same type infects the body, the memory cells immediately make antibodies and destroy the pathogens.

http://resources.schoolscience.co.uk/ABPI/immune/immAnim3.htm

Cloning an Army of T Cells for Immune Defense

In unit 4 we studied immune system. The sells of our immune system discover and destroy foregn invaders, like bacteria or virus, that enter our bodies and may threaten our health. We learned that immune system cells defend out bodies by acting as a coordinated team. Specific molecules on their surfaces mediate the communication among immune system cells. In this animation we can see how one type of immune cell-the helper T cell- interprets a message (an antigen )presented at the surface of the cell membrane by MCH-II molecule. T cell will release many molecules of the protein interleukin-2 and after the series of processes in the cell there is a result -the production of many clones of the helper T cell. These indentical T cells can serve as a brigale forming an essential communication network to activate B cells, which make antibodies that will specifically attack the activating antigen.

http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/animations/tcell/tcell_print.htm

inflammation animation

inflammatory response can be trigger by invasion of bacteria. Bacteria and damaged cells release substances that accumulated in the tissues. small blood vessels become more permeable thus allowing plasma fluid and proteins to leak out. The plasma proteins than attack the bacterian and attract the white blood cells. the white blood cells then engulf the bacteria and help repair damaged tissues.

http://biology-animations.blogspot.com/search/label/inflammatory%20response%20animation

How Antihistamines Work for Allergies

In this animation, it shows how the body produces White Blood Cells after the first exposure to an allergen. This happens to prepare the immune system for the next encounter with the same allergen. In the animation, it shows how antibodies attach to the Mast cells which are special cells found in the tissue of the respiratory and digestive system. After the body has been exposed again to the same allergen, this triggers the Mast cells to release Histamine, which attaches to the receptors near by cells. The receptors then interact with other substance in body and cause nearby blood vessels to swell and secrete the fluid, causing running nose, sneezing and watery eyes. Anti-histamines are drugs that basically attach themselves to the receptors and they block the histamine from binding to the cell receptors, thus preventing those symptoms.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ywdk3BTjK2s&feature=related

Anaphylactic Allergic Reactions

What I found most interesting about this animation is how it illustrates the way in which the body reacts to any foreign substance, but in this case, the allergic reaction is exaggerated. In the animation, it shows a person being stung by a bee, resulting in acute anaphylaxis or anaphylactic shock. Some of the symptoms of anaphylactic shock can include hives, flushing, swelling of face, itchy, watery eyes, runny nose and rapid breathing. The animation did a great job of showing how exposure to an allergen causes an increase in heart rate, vasodilation and causes a drop in blood pressure. It also showed how swelling of the tissue lining the respiratory system can obstruct the airway, making it difficult to breathe, which can ultimately lead to respiratory failure.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=olFD1R5Gu-A&feature=related

Humoral Immune Response

This animation goes through a very basic explanation of how the Humoral Immune Response works. Beginning with the Activation phase the macrophage engulfs an antigen by phagocytosis the process continues with the phagosome being broken apart through lysosome enzymes. With the antigen broken apart the processed antigens are combined with class II MHC proteins and are presented on the surface of the macrophage, known as antigen presentation and macrophages are considered the antigen presenting cells. Helper T cells enter the picture and bind to the particular presented antigen triggering the macrophage to release cytokine interleukin-1 this activates the helper T cells to multiply forming clones for the specific antigenic determinant of the original antigen. The Effector phase is where the B cells come into play and the process repeats, new clones are made some memory and some plasma.

This is a very good animation, to watch it click on the animation button then click on narration, then play. Have Fun

http://bcs.whfreeman.com/thelifewire/content/chp18/1804s.swf

Phagocytosis

I found this animation to be very helpful in the understanding of phagocytosis. It covered the steps of phagocytosis; chemotaxis, adherence, ingestion, digestion and elimination, as well as the opsonization. I find that this animation added to my understanding of the process by going into some depth on the steps, but it also helped to keep it as simple as possible. Some of the terminology was slightly different, but when taken in context and followed along with he lecture notes, it made perfect sense.



http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0072495855/student_view0/chapter2/animation__phagocytosis.html

Constructing Vaccines

http://www.theimmunology.com/animations/Vaccine.htm

This animation shows how vaccines are produced in various ways. In the past, vaccines have been produced with killed or inactivated pathogens. Another way to produce vaccine is the use of attenuated strain of the pathogen. Attenuated vaccine contains live but weaked microbes. However, the pathogen contains most of its antigen and it is able to start a immune response. Subunit vaccines are produced with the components of pathogens such as such as surface structure or fagella. Recombinant vaccine is produced by cloning the gene such as the surface protein structure from the pathogen into the host pathogen. For example, gene for a surface protein is cloned into the yeast cell. As a result, the yeast produces surface proteins which can be used as a vaccine.
This is related to our class since at the moment we are learning about immunization. Vaccination is one ways to acquire immunity without diease symptoms.

INFLAMMATION

Damaged to the body's tissues through heat, chemicals, sunburn, cuts, or microbial infecions trigger inflammation. Sings and symptoms of inflammation include redness, pain, heat, swelling, and sometimes loss of function. Inflammation has three main functions: to destroy the agent causing injury, to limit the effects to the rest of the body, and repair or replace damaged tissue. Damaged cells release several chemicals such as histamines,prostaglandins, and leukotrienes. Certain components of the complement system can also cause the release of histamine. One function of this chemicals is vasodilation and increase in a diameter of blood vessels. Vasolilation results in more blood and more phagocytes, nutrients, or oxygen is delivered to the site of injury. So, the increased of blood flow results in redness, heat, swelling, and some of the pain associated with inflammation. The increase of blood flow release phagocyte migration such as monocytes and nuetrophils to the scene. The phagocytes stick to the walls of the blood vessels called migration. Then squeeze throught the gaps between cells in the process called diapedesis(emigration). Within an hour, phagocytes begin to destroy the invading microorganism by phagocytosis. After engulfing the microorganisms and damaged tissue, phagocytes die forming phagosome. The final stage of inflammation is tissue repair. The increased of nutrients and oxygen from vasodilation aids the tissue. Other components of the blood heals the injury as well. I chose this video clip because in class we covered inflammation and functions of it. So, this clip is knowleagable and it is a good reminder of what we covered in class.

URL LINK: http://www.sbs.utexas.edu/psaxena/MicrobiologyAnimations/Animations/Inflammation/PLAY_inflammation.html

T helper cell

This short animation shows how T helper cell, which is a small cell, and B cell, which is a large cell, are specialized in the immune response. The T helper cell is another type of lymphocyte that helps immune response to antigens. When both B lymphocyte and T helper cell recognize the same presence of specific antigen, the T helper lymphocyte is responsed by producing factors that assist the B cell's colone expansion. In addition, the T helper cell produce various secretions that signal other cells to multiply and attacks. Moreover, they also releases other factors that distract additional B lymphocyte and phagocytic cells. The animation relates to the part of chapter 16 which we have learn in our class is about the T lymphocytes and the Immune Response, such as helper T cells assist B cells in antibody production and assist cytotoxic T cells.
http://biology-animations.blogspot.com/2007/12/t-helper-cell-animation.html
In addition, there is the animation which I like is the " Cytotoxic T cell activity against target cells" animation, is posted by another student, Sirena Thomas. I like this animation because it helps me to understand how cytotoxic T cells interact with the virus-infected cells ,and which causes perforations in the cell membrane.

T Cells Dependent Antigens

The video about T Cells Dependent Antigens is related to what we've already learned in our microbiology class.
Proteins need the help of T-helper cells to make B cells into antibody-producing cells and memory cells. As the protein enters the macrophage, it gets broken into peptide pieces; the Class II MHC then moves it out of the macrophage. The T-helper cell starts working as the T-cell receptor, which is on the top of the T-helper, senses the peptide compounds coming from the macrophage. After that, T-helper cell can stimulate B cells. Same as the macrophage, B cells are capable of ingesting protein antigens; an antibody, which rests on top of B cells, interacts with the antigen which causes the antigen to get swallowed by the B cell in which it gets broken into peptides and then carried out of the B cell on a Class II MHC. As the Class II MHC of the B cell, which carries the antigen, acts with the T-cell receptor, the T-helper brings cytokines into existence. The cytokines then cause B cells to produce plasma and memory cells. http://www.1lecture.com/Immunology/T%20Cells%20Dependent%20Antigens/index.html

Cytotoxic T cell activity aganist target cells

http://www.theimmunology.com/animations/Cytotoxic.T.Cell.htm

This is a great animation to give us a general idea of the action preformed cyotoxic T cell with a virus infected cell. Once the cyotoxic Tcell reconizes the viral antigen along with that the class I mhc presented on the infected cells membrane, the cyotoxic T cell wants to apoptosis this cell. To do so, it will release cyotoxins and perforin which will perforate the infected cells membrane and the end result apoptosis of the infected cell.

IgE mediated (type 1) hypersensitivity

This animation shows how IgE mediated hypersensitivity makes it so people develop allergic reaction. It goes through the process of this reaction step by step to help you understand why some people have allergies while others don't. Talks about the antigens that trigger these reactions and how the cells response in seconds by releasing histamines. The hisamines are the a response from the granules that trigger the symptoms. This animation helped me to understand IgE better.

http://www.theimmunology.com/animations/IgE%20Mediated%20(Type%20I)%20Hypersensitivity.htm